Information on national adaptation actions reported under the Governance Regulation
Reporting updated until: 2023-03-15
Item | Status | Links |
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National Adaptation Strategy (NAS) |
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Meteorological observations |
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Climate projections and services |
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Adaptation portals and platforms |
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Monitoring, reporting and evaluation (MRE) indicators and methodologies |
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Key reports and publications |
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National communication to the UNFCCC | ||
Governance regulation adaptation reporting |
Located between latitudes 57°30’ N and 59°49’ N and longitudes 21°46’ E and 28°13’ E, Estonia is marked by conditions typical of the Boreal bio-geographic region. However, due to the strong influence of the Baltic Sea, half of the country can be considered to have boreo-nemoral and the other half more continental boreal conditions.
Approximately half of the dry land is covered with forest. There are around 2804 natural and artificial lakes in Estonia. Most are very small, with the largest, Lake Peipus, being 3,555 km2. The percentage of bogs is 4.9%, stretching over 223,400 hectares.
Estonia boasts one of the richest biodiversities among territories of a similar size north from the 57th latitude. This is thanks to the varying climate conditions, the presence of island and mainland areas, the length of the coastline and the multitude of inland water bodies, and the variations in the bedrock and soil conditions which have all created a good basis for the formation and development of a diverse ecosystem. Roughly 40,000 species are thought to exist in Estonia, of which over 30,000 or more than 75% have been identified.
The main factor influencing Estonia’s climate is its geographical position. Estonia is in the mixed-forest subregion of the continental Atlantic region of the temperate zone and lies in the transition zone between oceanic and continental climates. Based on the Köppen climate classification, the majority of Estonia is of the Dfb climate type (cold winter humid continental climate) and only the outermost western parts of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa are of the Cfb climate type (temperate oceanic climate). Local climatic differences are mainly caused by the Baltic Sea bordering the mainland, which warms the coastal areas and the islands in winter and cools them in spring.
As the annual precipitation is almost twice as high as the evaporation, the climate is very humid. The average annual precipitation is approximately 550–700 mm, ranging from 520 mm on some islands to up to 740 mm on highlands. Seasonal variation in precipitation is similar all over the country, the driest months being February and March. From then on, precipitation gradually increases until July and August, after which it decreases towards winter and spring. The lowest annual precipitation can be less than 350 mm on the coast, but inland regions sometimes exceed 1,000 mm. The highest daily rainfall ever recorded was 148 mm and the highest annual rainfall a total of 1,157 mm.
The snow cover duration, depth and water supply vary greatly between years. While in the middle of 1970s and at the end of 1980s there were mild winters practically without snow, the winters in 1920–1933 were long and with a thick layer of snow. On average there are approximately 109 days with snow cover per year, ranging from 61 to 155 days. There has been a negative trend in the duration of snow cover in the period of 1961–2002, in forty years the average snow cover decreased by 25.9 days.
South-western, southern, and western winds prevail in Estonia. Northern winds are more frequent in spring and early summer. The average wind speed is 5–7 m/s in coastal areas and 3–5 m/s inland. The wind is strongest in the autumn and winter months, especially in November, December, and January (average wind speed of 4.3 m/s). The wind is weakest in summer (the average wind speed from July to August is 3.1 m/s). The strongest gust of wind measured by Estonian meteorological stations was 48 m/s measured in Ruhnu in November 1969.
The main long-term factor influencing the development of the Estonian population has been the geopolitical position of the country. Estonia has experienced a number of societal transformations, such as occupations before and after World War II, the collapse of the Soviet Union, and regaining independence in 1991.
The Estonian population has been constantly decreasing since the 1990s. Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, the shrinking of the population has been slowing down thanks to the modest increase in the birth rate and the decrease in the mortality rate.
Estonia is characterised by leaving first pregnancies to an older age. The timing of the first birth has shifted and the average age of mothers at the birth of their first child was 31 in 2021. The fertility rate or the average number of children per woman was 1.61 in 2021. The life expectancy of Estonians is somewhat lower compared to the average of the European Union. In 2021, the life expectancy of men in Estonia was 72.8 years and the life expectancy of women, 81.4 years.
Due to the small size of Estonia, it is not possible to manufacture all products and provide all services needed by the local people and business undertakings here, for example engine fuels, household appliances, or metals. The export volume of Estonian goods and services forms over 90% of the GDP, with about a third of this volume formed by the export of services. The most important services, the export of which is generating income for Estonian companies, are various transport-related services, but also tourism. More than three quarters of the Estonian industrial production is exported; many companies sell all their production outside of Estonia. Estonian export is diverse – electrical machinery and appliances, mineral products, various wood and timber products, metal products, and various services. The availability of natural resources also makes all forest-related fields of activity important for the Estonian economy. The biggest export partners of Estonian goods are Finland, Sweden, and Latvia. The export to the United States, China, India, Canada, Japan, the Republic of Korea, as well as several Western European countries has shown a strong growth.
The growth in the average wage has outpaced the forecasts in the recent years and has been accompanied by a quicker growth of the wage costs compared to the growth in added value. So far, this has not resulted in a significant loss of competitiveness in the foreign markets and the expanding of the export has continued. While the current account has been in surplus in the past few years, it showed a small deficit in 2020, but this will be temporary. The growth in the export of goods accelerated, thereby compensating for the stronger domestic demand, and resulting in a decrease of the trade deficit. The economic growth has also surprised positively, amounting to almost 5% as the average of the last three years before the decline in 2020 (2017–2019). Despite the rapid growth, there should not be any unbalanced internal changes in the Estonian economy.
The Estonian transport network consists of the infrastructure required for road, rail, water, and air traffic. As of 1 January 2022, the total length of the road network is 58,946 km, of which 16,993 km is formed by state roads. This is complemented by 87.6 km of temporary ice roads, depending on the weather. Paved roads form 74% of all state roads.
The total length of the railways in Estonia is 2,164 km, of which 71.2% is in public use and 28.8% in non-public use. An electric railway of 132 km is part of the public railway. This is complemented by private railway sections at ports and the railway built for transporting oil shale.
The length of the Estonian coastline is 4,015 km and there is a dense network of ports on the coast. Including the ports of the internal water bodies, there are 232 ports registered in the Estonian State Port Register.
There are ten airports in Estonia (five visual and five instrumental airports).
There are over 7,500 companies operating in the Estonian industrial sector, of which the majority are small or medium-sized companies. There are more than 200 companies with over 200 employees, but a half of all employees of the industrial sector are employed at those companies. In total, 25% of the labour force was employed in the manufacturing industry in 1991 and 18% in 2020, which is above the EU average (14%) and shows that other countries create more added value with the same number of employees. The number of people employed in the manufacturing industry is very likely to continue to decrease in the future, supported by an increase in productivity and a decrease in the difference in the share of employment, especially in the more labour-intensive fields.
Wood is one of the most important natural resources in Estonia and the timber industry is, in turn, one of the most important sectors of the Estonian economy. The importance of the timber industry has been gradually increasing and is about to reach about a fifth of the entire manufacturing industry production and 7.9% of the Estonian GDP. The timber industry is a net exporter which is important from the perspective of balancing the foreign trade balance.
The surface area of agricultural land has dropped from 1,458,400 hectares in 1990 to 986,627 hectares in 2021. Thereat, the agricultural land area has increased by 40,680 hectares in the past decade. In 2021, the growing area of arable crops was 699,632 ha, of which cereals formed more than half (52.5%, 367,117 ha), fodder crops 178,225 ha (25.5%), industrial crops 85,313 ha (12.2%), and potatoes, legumes, and vegetables 54,160 ha (7,7%), in total.
The number of farm animals has decreased by 67.1% since 1990. Based on the data of 2021, there were 250,700 cattle (incl. 83,600 dairy cows), 308,000 pigs, 75,323 sheep, 4,977 goats, and 2,105,100 poultry in Estonia. The drop has mainly been caused by the transfer from a planned economy to a market economy in the beginning of 1990s.
In 2021, the total production of the agricultural sector amounted to 1.073 billion euros, which is 8% more than a year earlier. Of this, 432.6 million (40%) was formed by animal output and 548 million (51%) by crop output, which is the highest of the past twenty years. The biggest industries were cultivation of cereal, oilseed and dairy production.
The respective results were assembled and published within the framework of the EURO- CORDEX project. Where it was not possible or reasonable to use the results of EURO-CORDEX directly, summaries of published scientific literary works were used, incl. the IPCC reports AR5 (2013) and AR4 (2007), the IPCC special report on extreme climate events, SREX (2012), an overview of the scientific literature on climate change in the Baltic Sea basin, BACC (2008), and the project for the assessment of climate impacts, Baltadapt.
Hazard type | Acute/Chronic | Observed climate hazards |
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Water | Acute | Drought |
Flood | ||
Heavy precipitation | ||
Chronic | Change in sea ice cover | |
Changing precipitation patterns and types | ||
Precipitation hydrological variability | ||
Sea level rise | ||
Solid mass | Acute | |
Chronic | Coastal_erosion | |
Temperature | Acute | Heat wave |
Wildfire | ||
Chronic | Changing temperature | |
Temperature variability | ||
Wind | Acute | Cyclone |
Storm | ||
Chronic | Changing wind patterns |
Hazard type | Acute/Chronic | Future climate hazards | Qualitative trend |
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Water | Acute | Drought | significantly increasing |
Flood | significantly increasing | ||
Heavy precipitation | significantly increasing | ||
Snow and ice load | without significant change | ||
Chronic | Change in sea ice cover | significantly decreasing | |
Changing precipitation patterns and types | significantly increasing | ||
Precipitation hydrological variability | significantly increasing | ||
Sea level rise | significantly increasing | ||
Water scarcity | without significant change | ||
Solid mass | Acute | Landslide Future | without significant change |
Chronic | Coastal erosion | significantly increasing | |
Soil erosion | without significant change | ||
Temperature | Acute | Cold wave frost | without significant change |
Heat wave | significantly increasing | ||
Wildfire | significantly increasing | ||
Chronic | Changing temperature | significantly increasing | |
Temperature variability | significantly increasing | ||
Wind | Acute | Cyclone | significantly increasing |
Storm | significantly increasing | ||
Chronic | Changing wind patterns | significantly increasing |
The increase in the average annual precipitation in the second half of the 20th century has been significant in Estonia, remaining between 5% and 15%, taking into consideration a correction for wetting. A higher trend can be observed in the period from October to March. In 1866– 1995, only a weak and statistically insignificant growth trend has been observed in the case of Estonia, which is stronger in autumn and winter and weaker in spring and summer. Regular cycles have also been observed in the total amount of precipitation, which are of the lengths 50–60, 25–33, and 5–7 years. The average annual precipitation in a specific region may differ by more than twice, for example, 400 mm in 1965 and 850 mm in 1990.
A periodicity similar to that of precipitation is generally also characteristic of the runoff of Estonian rivers. Short-term variability can most often be observed in periods of 3–4 years and long-term variability in periods of 26–27 years, which reflect the regularity of the water-rich and water-hungry periods in the 20th century. No one-way increases or decreases in runoff have been observed in Estonia in the last 150 years and the impacts of climate change on runoff are not as clear or clearly targeted as the observed long-term increase in precipitation.
The data on the water temperature of Lake Peipus and Lake Võrtsjärv show an increasing trend similarly to other lakes in the Baltic Sea basin. The end of winter in the Estonian inland waterbodies moved to a month earlier in the period of 1946–1998. The ice cover period of Estonian rivers and lakes has shortened. The runoff maximum of the rivers has moved to an earlier time and the peak runoffs are less steep. The likelihood of high runoffs in spring (= 10%, i.e. runoff, which occurs once in ten years) decreased in the period of 1922–2010.
Sea water surface temperature is one of the main parameters characterising the climate of the surface layer of the Baltic Sea and its variability. The research, based on the analysis of infrared channel data from satellites, found a warming of the average annual surface temperature of the Baltic Sea. Around the coast of Estonia, the temperature change has been 0.6 to 1.0 °C per decade in the period of 1990–2008. The time series of the Baltic Sea ice cover shows that, during the last 50 years, the maximum ice cover extent of the Baltic Sea has fluctuated between 50,000 km2 and 400,000 km2 . In previous years, it has reached up to 420,000 km2 . A sharp decrease in the maximum extent of ice cover after 1990 is preceded by predominantly ice-rich years and followed by ice-poor years. Decreasing sea ice cover has also been accompanied by a shorter duration of ice cover in the coastal areas of Estonia – ice formation is taking place later and the melting earlier.
increased flooding risk and pressure for building relocation;
changes in the hydrological cycle and vegetation and the spread of alien species;
unfrozen and waterlogged forest land in the winter and new plant pests;
transient effects of global trends on the economy;
immigration from global migration;
additional requirements on infrastructure and building durability;
changes in seasonal energy consumption.
Key affected sectors
Key affected sector(s) | forestry |
Rating of the observed impacts of key hazards, including changes in frequency and magnitude | low |
Different rating of the observed impacts of key hazards | different geographical regions within the country; different key hazards |
Assessment | The average number of forest fires has decreased by years, indicating the effectiveness of the preventive measures of anthropogenic forest fires. The number of forest fires that can be classified as emergencies has also decreased considerably. Forest fires generally result in extensive damage to the natural environment. Due to climate change, species that are currently not represented or are scarce in Estonia but causing more and more damage in the neighbouring countries (including invasive alien species) are an increasing risk in Estonia. |
Rating of the key hazards' likelihood of occurrence and exposure to them under future climate | low |
Different rating of the likelihood of the occurrence of key hazards and exposure to them under future climate | different climate change scenarios |
Rating of the vulnerability, including adaptive capacity | medium |
Different rating of the vulnerability and/or adaptive capacity | |
Assessment | Increasing temperature, precipitation and extreme weather events caused by climate change influence the structure and functions of forest ecosystems, altering forest growth, carbon accumulation, and thus the whole nutrient cycle. Also, it is essential to pay attention to the maintenance and management of the genetic resources of forests. A larger genetic variation allows tree species better adapt to the changing climate. Climate change may considerably affect the capacity of the sector and its share in economy and employment. The composition of forest crop and through that the quality and availability of timber from excessively wet forests may deteriorate as the result of climate change and the costs in the forestry sector may increase. |
Rating for the risk of potential future impacts | medium |
Different rating of the risk of potential future impacts | different climate change scenarios |
Assessment | Climate change may considerably affect the capacity of the forest sector and its share in the economy and employment, e.g. through long-term changes in the composition of the Estonian forests, the production and the ecological status of forests, or through a decline in the quality of timber. The most important climate factors that will affect forestry are increasing temperature and precipitation. Strong negative impact can be caused by more frequent extreme weather events (drought, extremely low winter temperatures, storms). The forest industry will face difficulties with timber transport out from forests due to decreasing period with frozen soil in winter. Economically the largest effect will be caused by the need for additional costs for tending forest roads and ditches. Among fellings, the amount of sanitary felling will increase. The share of deciduous tree species will probably increase in forests. Positive effect is expected from increasing timber increment although such trend might not persist for the whole century. Forest health could worsen due to new invasive pathogens. |
Key affected sector(s) | health |
Rating of the observed impacts of key hazards, including changes in frequency and magnitude | medium |
Different rating of the observed impacts of key hazards | different key hazards |
Assessment | The most serious impact on people’s health is the increase in air temperature and the increasing rate of heat waves, together with the impact of the heat island effect. The impact of higher temperatures on hot days and the increased number of heat waves have been already manifested, as mortality was quite high during hot weather periods (with the maximum temperature of the day exceeding 27 °C) in the period of 1996–2013. The summer of 2021 was the warmest in the 155-year history of Estonian weather observations. In June 2021, 15 absolute air temperature records were recorded at 25 stations of the National Weather Service. On average, they exceeded the absolute air temperature norms calculated for the period of 1991–2020 by 2–3 °C. The negative effect of heatwaves is intensified by the ageing of the population and urbanisation, which are trends currently monitored in Estonia and will accelerate in the future. Air quality also has an important effect on health. Poor air quality is considered one of the biggest environmental health risks, as air pollution has a significant impact on public health. The main sources of fine particle air pollution are car traffic (both exhaust gases and particles from road surface and tire wear), local heating (mainly stove heating) and industrial enterprises. In addition to local pollution, there is also the long-range transmission of air pollutants, which is especially important in rural areas. Fine particles can also have natural sources such as forest fires. Although the content of air pollutants may increase (during heat waves, the formation of ground-level ozone becomes more intensive, on certain periods the dispersion conditions of small particles may deteriorate and the number of forest fires may increase), the most direct effect of climate change that is affecting air quality is still the increase in pollen spread. |
Rating of the key hazards' likelihood of occurrence and exposure to them under future climate | high |
Different rating of the likelihood of the occurrence of key hazards and exposure to them under future climate | different climate change scenarios |
Rating of the vulnerability, including adaptive capacity | medium |
Different rating of the vulnerability and/or adaptive capacity | different key hazards |
Assessment | The main vulnerability of the health sector arises from the capability and preparedness of healthcare systems to adapt to the changing climate and extreme weather phenomena (availability of medical care may be interrupted), from the sensitivity and inequality of the population, from the share of more vulnerable people (the elderly, children, chronically ill), and the existence and functioning of warning systems. The negative effect of heatwaves is intensified by the ageing of the population and urbanisation which are trends currently monitored in Estonia and will accelerate in the future. Besides the exposure to climate risks, the vulnerability of towns also depends on complex socio-economic processes, the spatial density of towns, morphology, technical and social infrastructure, the share of green and water areas in the urban landscape, administrative capacity and implemented adaptation measures. |
Rating for the risk of potential future impacts | medium |
Different rating of the risk of potential future impacts | different climate change scenarios |
Assessment | With heavy showers and/or severe floods, hazardous substances and excess nutrients from the environment (whereas the former may directly affect the health of people and the latter may cause more intensive eutrophication) as well as numerous parasites may be transferred to water (which may be transferred to drinking water in the case of insufficient water treatment). A wider spread of plant diseases and mycotoxins is a risk related to food safety, which may become more hazardous in the case of the climate scenario RCP8.5 in 2050–2100. The forecasts indicate that in the future, exposure to UV radiation will increase, which will also increase the probability of skin cancer (in Estonia, the annual growth in recent years has been 2– 4%). At the same time, based on the climate scenarios, winters may be muggier in the future, reducing the amount of sunlight in the winter period (reducing vitamin D synthesis and increasing the risk of depression). |
Key affected sector(s) | civil protection and emergency management |
Rating of the observed impacts of key hazards, including changes in frequency and magnitude | medium |
Different rating of the observed impacts of key hazards | different geographical regions within the country; different key hazards |
Assessment | Climate change mostly affects, both directly and indirectly, larger Estonian towns Tallinn, Tartu and Pärnu, concentrating the majority of the population, economic activities, property, capital and cultural values. The technogenic urban environment with high population density and complex town- planning aspects cannot buffer the effects quickly enough – new civil engineering works often even amplify the risks. From the perspective of rescue capability, the primary issues are the floods in densely populated areas and extensive forest and landscape fires. In the context of Estonia, these emergencies do not pose a very great risk on the life and health of people but may cause extensive property damage. |
Rating of the key hazards' likelihood of occurrence and exposure to them under future climate | medium |
Different rating of the likelihood of the occurrence of key hazards and exposure to them under future climate | different climate change scenarios; different geographical regions within the country; different key hazards |
Rating of the vulnerability, including adaptive capacity | medium |
Different rating of the vulnerability and/or adaptive capacity | different geographical regions within the country; different key hazards |
Assessment | In the case of rescue capability, vulnerability depends on the processing of large amounts of emergency calls (in the case of floods, forest or landscape fires), on the learnt helplessness of people, and on interruptions in rescue work and in ensuring public order. The main risks related to climate change manifest and are amplified in the cities, which are exposed to extreme weather phenomena, where the activities of people are restricted to certain areas, where there is specific land use, the constructed environment, and urban landscape. |
Rating for the risk of potential future impacts | high |
Different rating of the risk of potential future impacts | different climate change scenarios; different geographical regions within the country; different key hazards |
Assessment | Taking into consideration the forecasts for the speed of post-glacial rebound and the rise in world sea level, climate change has caused the long-term relative sea-level decline trend (caused by post-glacial rise) to be replaced by a rising trend in this century which by the end of the 21st century may mean an average sea-level rise on the coasts of Estonia: 20-40 cm according to the more optimistic trend RCP4.5 and 40-60 cm according to the more pessimistic trend RCP8.5. Sea level is currently considered especially dangerous if it is at least the following amount above the long- time average: 160 cm in Pärnu, 140 cm in Haapsalu, 160 cm in Narva-Jõesuu, 80 cm in Tallinn in Kopli and Pirita and 120 cm in the city centre harbour, 150 cm in Kuressaare. When preparing the plans and developing rescue systems, the contour lines for flood risk areas should be located towards the inland in the future due to the rise in sea level. Due to the change in the cyclone trajectories and the resulting increase in the number of western storms, the coastal areas of Estonia may be more often exposed to the sea level rises and floods caused by the storms, the extent of which will probably be wider than we have experienced so far. To assess the floods caused by storms more accurately and operatively and to mitigate the risks, the sea level forecast systems and the public warning systems must be maintained and developed. To improve the accuracy of forecasting the probability of occurrence of potential extreme floods and their extent, the scientific research of archive materials and other sources, including the geological material, must be supported. The increasing flood risk presupposes a change in plans and rescue systems – above all, attention should be paid to populated coastal areas. |
Overview of institutional arrangements and governance at the national level
In 2021, NAS action plan for the period of 2021–2025 was completed. Its purpose is to ensure that climate change adaptation activities are consistent, meet the goals set in the development plan, and contribute to climate change adaptation at both the local and national level.
NAS will be included in the newly prepared environmental strategy document Environmental Development Plan until 2030 (KEVAD). According to the action programme of the Government of the Republic planned, the entry into force for KEVAD is the second half of 2023.
Climate change has already been included as a horizontal topic in several sectoral development documents, development plans and strategies, which are monitored by the responsible authorities of the documents/plans/strategies.
In 2022, a report on the implementation of the Climate Change Adaptation Development Plan until 2030 for the period of 2017–2020 was presented to the Government of the Republic. The report provides a good overview of the achievement of the goals and effectiveness of the development plan.
In 2021 the Ministry of Environment completed the action plan for NAS for the period of 2021–2025. The implementation of the mentioned action plan is planned through sectoral action programmes, and its purpose is to ensure that climate change adaptation activities are consistent, meet the goals set in the NAS, and contribute to climate change adaptation at both the local and national level. The estimate of the cost of implementing the development plan for adapting to the effects of climate change for the years 2021–2025 is 296 million euros.
1. Health and rescue capability
2. Land use and planning
3. Natural environment
4. Bioeconomy
5. Economy
6. Society, awareness, and cooperation
7. Infrastructure and buildings
8. Energy and security of supply
1) Improved rescue capability and the ability of people to protect their health and property has decreased the negative impacts of climate change on health and the living environment.
2) The risk of storms, floods, and erosion has been managed, the heat island effect has been managed, the climate resistance of settlements has been increased by selecting the best land use and planning solutions.
3) Variety of certain species, habitats, and landscapes, the favourable condition and completeness of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and provision of socio-economically significant eco-system services to a sufficient extent and with a sufficient quality have
been ensured in the changing climate conditions.
4) Sustainability of the bioeconomic sectors, which are important to Estonia, is ensured through planning the agriculture, forestry, water management, fisheries and the leisure industry as well as peat extraction by taking into consideration the climate.
5) Participants in the economy are using the opportunities, which accompany climate change, in the best possible manner and manage the risks related thereto.
6) People understand the hazards and opportunities accompanying climate change.
7) The impacts of climate change will not result in decreased availability of vital services or decreased energy-efficiency of buildings.
8) Climate change will not result in decreased energy independence, energy security, the security of supply or usability of renewable energy resources or in the increase of the volume of the final consumption of primary energy.
In 2017, the initial estimate of the cost of implementing the NAS for the period of 2017–2030 was 43.745 million euros. NAS' performance report pointed out that a total of 198 million euros was allocated for adaptation measures in the period of 2017–2020. In financial terms, the majority of adaptation measures and activities during this
period were carried out in the fields of natural environment and bioeconomy.
In 2021, the NAS' action plan for the period of 2021–2025 was completed. The implementation of the action plan is planned through sectoral action programmes, and its purpose is to ensure that climate change adaptation activities are consistent, meet the goals set in the development plan, and contribute to climate change adaptation at both the local and national level. The estimated cost of implementing the development plan for adapting to the effects of climate change for the years 2021–2025 is 296 million euros. A lot of planned adaptation activities in this period are in the fields of natural environment and
bioeconomy. Greater emphasis is placed on more efficient use of primary energy and increasing the share of renewable energy in the final consumption in the field of energy and security of supply.
The strategic development documents of Estonia include direct and indirect measures, which may help society in adapting to the impacts of climate change.
Climate change has already been included as a horizontal topic in several sectoral development documents and development plans, as well as in the long-term strategy Estonia 2035. The goal is the comprehensive introduction of solutions that contribute to the green transition and in order to achieve this the following activities are planned: supporting planning in cooperation with local governments to mitigate climate change, reducing the impact of climate change and adapting to it, increasing and preserving biodiversity, diversifying the living environment, and promoting environmentally friendly living and visiting environments.
Adaptation to climate change is also integrated into the climate policy vision document General Principles of Climate Policy until 2050 (GPCP) where the long-term vision of Estonian climate policy, along with sectoral and economy-wide policy directions, will set a clear path towards 2050 for mitigating climate change, i.e. reducing GHG emissions and also adapting to climate change effects.
In the Development Plan for Internal Security 2020–2030, climate change is considered as one of the important trends affecting the field of internal security. It is more necessary than before to pay attention to the prevention of widespread fires, monitoring their occurrence, and extinguishing fires that have broken out as economically and quickly as possible. As climate change causes an increase in extreme weather conditions (including floods and storms) and can also lead to widespread crises, then preparing for such crises becomes more important than before for both residents and the country.
One of the sub-goals of the Population Health Development Plan 2020–2030 is a health-supporting environment and the readiness and flexibility to consider the impact of climate change on health is stated as one of the prerequisites for achieving it. According to the development plan, it must be taken into account that poor people are most vulnerable to climate change (e.g. more frequent storms and floods in winter and hot periods in summer), as they may lack the means and network to buffer against the impact of climate change or to mitigate climate risks. Therefore, extreme weather events can increase inequality in society. The health effects caused by climate change are primarily seen in children, the elderly and the chronically ill, as well as people with multiple health problems at the same time.
The goals and directions in the Agriculture and Fisheries Strategy 2030 take into account the needs for sustainable development as well as for the mitigation of climate change and adaptation. The development plan states that, according to climate projections, our region may be one of the few where production conditions tend to improve over time, although it is assumed that the weather may become more extreme and unpredictable than before. At the same time, the globalisation of trade and climate change encourage the spread of new plant pests and animal diseases.
The main focus of the Transport and Mobility Development Plan 2030 is the reduction of the environmental footprint of the transport means and system and the development of climate-resistant infrastructure, with the aim of helping to achieve the climate goals for 2030 and 2050.
The Youth Sector Development Plan 2021–2035 considers raising the awareness and readiness of young people to solve future challenges, including problems associated with climate change, as an important challenge in the period of 2021–2025. It is proven that climate and environmental topics are important for young people all over the world, including in Estonia, where there are already civic youth movements on climate change. The topic of climate change is dealt with in various forms of education, including non-formal education and youth work activities.
The Emergency Act governs the drawing up of risk analyses of emergencies and plans for responding in emergency situations, emergency-related training, notification of emergencies, management of responding to emergencies, as well as the declaring of emergency situations and the measures applied during emergency situations. This includes the obligation to work for third parties, expropriation of movables, prohibition on staying and other restrictions on the freedom of movement. In the case of a rescue event, the leading authority for the preparation of the emergency risk analysis is the Estonian Rescue Board, and in the case of a healthcare event, the Health Board. Risk analyses make it possible to systematically assess which events may develop into an emergency and which may not.
Although the risk analyses do not refer to the effects of climate change or the importance of adaptation thereto, the existing measures still help to manage climate risks and are, in their essence, works which the system administrator should perform anyway or which the state should order additionally from companies (e.g. modernisation of rainwater systems, maintenance of dams, preparation of more accurate maps for risk areas and preparation of risk management plans, training for local governments regarding the issues related to emergencies). The law also stipulates the organisation of the continuous functioning of vital services (e.g. electricity and gas supply, continuity of ambulance services and water supply and sewerage services) which may also be affected by climate change (if extreme weather conditions become more frequent). To ensure the continuity of vital services, continuity risk analyses and continuity plans are foreseen. The main focus of the measures related to the Emergency Act is to increase the awareness of the population and the providers of vital services, inform the risk groups and promote cooperation, but also to make the weather forecasts more effective and establish a weatherproof infrastructure.
The impact of climate change is also included in the Water Act, with goals to prevent the deterioration of the condition of water ecosystems, terrestrial ecosystems and wetlands that depend on them and to improve their condition, to promote the sustainable use of water and to ensure the long-term protection of surface and groundwater resources and adequate water supply, to contribute to mitigating the effects of floods and droughts and achieve good environmental conditions in the marine area. The Water Act stipulates the obligation to prepare maps of areas with a flood risk (updated and published in 2019), to assess flood risks and to prepare flood risk mitigation plans.
The aim of these activities and plans is to manage the potential damaging consequences arising from floods to human health, property, the environment, cultural heritage, and economic activities and decrease the likelihood of such damage in the future, primarily by increasing awareness, as well as by identifying and assessing new, increasing risks. During the risk assessment, previous similar events are mapped, and their scope, course and damage are described.
Risk mitigation must include flood protection, flood preparedness, flood forecasting and early warning systems. Implementation of the measures will commence at the national level, at the level of the local government of the area at risk, or at the level of companies, organisations, or residents. Plans are necessary to prevent and mitigate the damage caused by natural floods to human health, property and to the environment. Measures and guidelines of mitigation plans must be taken into account in general plans, development plans and crisis management plans of national and local governments.
The prerequisite for increasing the rescue capability is increasing the efficiency of risk management. The efficiency of risk management can be increased in emergencies related to climate change to ensure better possibilities for the prevention and management of emergencies. Communication of the risks also requires development – notifying and warning of the public in time to bring vital information smoothly to the vulnerable population. It is also important to increase the awareness of the population of the hazards and to teach about coping and assisting others in emergencies. Organising cooperation must be focused on more than before, both between the civil and military institutions and between authorities and the private sector. Acquiring and development the rescue service equipment required for responding to emergencies related to climate change is also important, as even though the general number of forest and landscape fires is decreasing, the number of fires caused by climate factors is on the rise. The main adaptation measures applied in the sector are:
1) development of information, monitoring, and support systems and drawing up action plans to increase the efficiency of the management of the health risks arising from climate change and the management of the health risks;
2) increasing rescue capability.
In the case of land use and planning measures, spatial planning is the instrument, which enables preventing the adaptation-related risks affecting cities and coastal areas. Another important factor is the competence and ability of local governments and county governments in the field of planning, i.e. existence of specialists competent in the area of adaptation to the impacts of climate change. Thus, integration of the knowledge of both the people as well as specialists into plans, strategic assessment of environmental impacts, as well as urban organisation is important.
The measures are focused on the prevention of the potential damage arising from heat waves and heat islands, floods and storms and on the management of risks by applying measures related to land use, the management of risks related to flood and heatwaves by creating and maintaining green areas, using the cooling effect of water and various construction technology solutions, such as reconstruction and construction of stormwater systems, consideration of the heat-reflecting, heat-absorbing, and heat-retaining qualities of surfaces and air circulation in the designing and construction of buildings. Implementation of the measures is primarily the landowners’ duty. The state and local governments must guide the application of the implementation measures within the scope of their legal and administrative competences. The main adaptation measures applied in the sector are:
1) increasing awareness of the impacts and risks of climate change on land use, urban organisation and planning, development of planning methods for areas at risk, and adjustment of the legal framework;
2) management of the flood hazard and development of green areas and green areas in cities to manage climate risks.
It is important for the information on the impacts of climate change and the potential impacts of extreme weather phenomena to be equally and easily accessible for all. Based on this information, local governments and local communities can plan their activities and response in hazardous situations, and adaptation measures can support them in such planning (training, provision of equipment, etc.). It is essential to assess the awareness and knowledge of the population of the potential impacts of climate change and their ability to serve themselves.
The success of adaptation to the impacts of climate change depends on the accuracy of the information available in Estonia on climate change. For the continuous updating of the information and increasing the accuracy of the forecasts, it is vital to support climate research and participate in international cooperation initiatives related to climate research (e.g. Copernicus, JPI Climate). The aim of notification and educational measures is to support schools and informal education institutions in adaptation to the impacts of climate change and to supply them with the required supporting materials, training, etc. for the integration of adaptation to the impacts of climate change in their curricula.
In order to make risk management more effective, a list of the emergency situations in which risk communication is organised and the authorities responsible for the organisation was prepared on the basis of § 10 of the Emergency Act. Behavioural guidelines for crisis situations were prepared in 2018 together with the concept of population protection. A website and an app Be prepared - Ole valmis are also available to residents. In relation to climate change, extraordinary weather situations (storms, excessively hot weather) and floods have been presented as crisis situations, and guidelines for behaviour in these situations have been provided.
The main adaptation measures applied in the sector of society, awareness and cooperation are:
1. increasing the efficiency of risk management and ensuring the ability of the employees of state and local government authorities to manage the risks accompanying climate change;
2) supporting the adaptation to climate change of preschool education institutions, general educational institutions and hobby schools, environmental education centres and vocational educational institutions to the impacts of climate change;
3) ensuring the availability of up-to-date and thorough information about the impacts of climate change, including the transferred impacts of global climate change on Estonia;
4) participation in international cooperation for management of the impacts of climate change and adaptation to the impacts as well as in the development of a strong international climate policy.
The main measure for the preservation of the fisheries resources and thus also fishing opportunities in the changing climate conditions is, above all, changing the ratio of the fishing regime and the methods of use of the fisheries resources (hobby fishing and industrial fishing). The fisheries resources should be managed more accurately and skillfully, taking climate risks into account. Through optimisation of minimum size limits, creation of better spawning conditions, spatial and seasonal restrictions on fishing, and regulating fishing efforts is already a common practice in Estonia, these measures should be brought into compliance with changing climate and resources. One of the prioritised measures is reducing the factors, which damage fish fauna (e.g. anthropogenic eutrophication, pollution). This helps to compensate for the negative impacts of climate change on the living environment of fish. To prevent remarkable damage, large investments must be immediately made in Lake Peipus and the Baltic Sea (cross-border, if possible) to implement measures, which are of decisive importance for preserving the habitats of fish. A measure, which can be implemented to increase the efficiency of the use of diminishing fisheries resources, is more extensive and efficient adding of value to the fish (incl. the fish of low value and foreign species) and restriction of illegal fishing. If necessary and possible, alternative jobs should be created promptly in the home regions of the population groups who are dependent on fisheries to provide an additional income source in coastal areas (e.g. development of tourism, incl. accommodation, catering establishments, car parks, transportations to the fishing sites on lakes or at sea) and fish farming should be developed. The lack of scientific information, which the adaptation measures could be based on, is of decisive importance here, incl. inaccurate assessment of the fisheries resources. Thus, complex studies of the pressure factors influencing the fish fauna and communities (e.g. climate change and eutrophication) must be conducted in the coming years and hobby fishing should be monitored at the national level, allowing the state to get a better overview of the use of the fisheries resources. To make knowledge-based decisions in the management of the fisheries resources, the results of the monitoring of the fisheries resources must be integrated better with other biota and environmental monitoring. Such studies aim to implement scientifically proven and thoroughly planned measures for adaptation to the climate in the fisheries sector all over Estonia. The main adaptation measures applied in the sector are:
1) ensuring the productivity and viability of forests, and the diverse and efficient use of forests in the changing climate;
2) ensuring the sustainability of the fisheries resources and the welfare of the people who earn their living from the fisheries sector in the changing climate.
The measures of the economy sector are primarily focused on companies to notify them of the risks and opportunities, which accompany climate change, followed by supporting the companies in the necessary restructuring. Thus, the main task is to make the information about climate change readily available, as well as to notify the companies operating in the at-risk areas of the risks accompanying climate change and make them prepare for hazardous situations. The main adaptation measures applied in the sector are:
1) supporting entrepreneurship, which considers the impacts of climate change.
Selection of actions and (programmes of) measures
Climate change has already been included as a horizontal topic in several sectoral development documents, development plans and strategies, which are monitored by the responsible authorities of the documents/plans/strategies.
There is yet no comprehensive MRE methodology in place to systematically and periodically assess climate impacts, vulnerabilities, risks and adaptive capacity. This has been identified as an issue and a systemic solution is being sought.
There is yet no comprehensive MRE methodology in place to systematically and periodically assess climate impacts, vulnerabilities, risks and adaptive capacity. This has been identified as an issue and a systemic solution is being sought.
There is yet no comprehensive MRE methodology in place to systematically and periodically assess climate impacts, vulnerabilities, risks and adaptive capacity. This has been identified as an issue and a systemic solution is being sought.
1) awareness: increasing the awareness of the general public (the society as a whole, people, officials, etc.) and reducing the knowledge gaps related to climate change and the uncertainty due to them (scientific measures);
2) readiness and resilience: ensuring the capacity to mitigate climate risks and increasing strategic and operative readiness;
3) caution: acknowledging long-term changes and preventive action in the long perspective.
It has been identified that systemic risk assessment, indicator elaboration/use and monitoring/cost-efficiency evaluation is necessary to support/sustain current adaptation actions elaborated in NAS and updated NAP, which efforts should be gradually and strategically delegated to local authorities. Relevant capacity, including the ability to determine ecosystem services and social transition component in the adaptation process, have shortcomings.
With the help of the LIFE SIP (Strategic Integrated Project) AdaptEst project, new climate projections will be prepared for Estonia based on the 6th IPCC assessment report (AR6). Compiling Estonian climate projections and updating the future climate scenarios is one of the activities of the LIFE SIP AdaptEst project. In cooperation with ESTEA, the University of Tartu and Tallinn University of Technology it is planned to prepare high-resolution climate models for Estonia until the end of this century. The cost of preparing climate scenarios is about 1 million euros. Preparation of Estonian climate projections is planned for the project period 2023-2026. Climate projections are also impacting the development of other areas (e.g. creating a model of the water bodies that most affected by climate change, developing construction standards taking extreme weather events into account, etc.). The climate projections are also an important input for the new period Environmental Development Plan 2031+, but also for the planning of climate change adaptation activities in other sectoral development plans.
In 2022, a report on the implementation of the Climate Change Adaptation Development Plan until 2030 for the period of 2017–2020 was presented to the Government of the Republic. The report provides a good overview of the achievement of the goals and effectiveness of the development plan.
Climate change has been included as a horizontal topic to several sectoral development documents and development plans, as well as long-term strategies. For example in the long-term strategy Estonia 2035, the climate policy vision document General Principles of Climate Policy until 2050, the Development Plan for Internal Security 2020–2030, the Population Health Development Plan 2020–2030, the Agriculture and Fisheries Strategy 2030, f the Transport and Mobility Development Plan 2030. More information about this can be found in the report on the outcomes of the NAP 2017–2020.
Good practices and lessons learnt
Cooperation and experience
After joining the European Landscape Convention, a working group for the implementation of the Landscape Convention started working at the Ministry of the Environment in 2019. The Convention is intended to promote landscape protection, management, and planning, as well as cooperation in this field in Europe. The landscape has a significant impact on people’s quality of life and identity. It is also of great importance for the culture, social well-being, ecology, and economy of society. In accordance with the principle of subsidiarity, the responsibility for landscape-related activities lies not only with national authorities, but also with local and regional authorities. The Landscape Convention is implemented both horizontally and vertically, from individuals to the national level, and in cooperation with all areas of activity that shape and change landscapes.
The goal of JPI Ocean microplastic survey is to find out about the sources of microplastics, to develop a method for analyzing microplastics and nanoplastics, the distribution and quantities of microplastic particles studied and their impact on the marine ecosystem and life. Proposals are also being developed to reduce the amount of plastic entering the marine environment. The Ministry of the Environment co-finances two projects in which TalTech Marine Systems Institute from Estonia participates: ANDROMEDA (Analysis techniques for the quantification of nano- and microplastic particles and their degradation in the marine environment opens in a new tab) and RESPONSE (Towards a risk-based assessment of microplastic pollution of marine ecosystems).
The Estonian Research Council co-finances the RESPONSE project and the HOTMIC project (Horizontal and vertical oceanic distribution, transport and impact of microplastics), in which the Estonian Maritime Institute of UT participates.
In the period of 2019–2020, the study ‘Use and development of remote sensing data in the public services’ was carried out within the research programme RITA. As part of the study, a flood mapping methodology suitable for Estonia was developed based on remote monitoring data, which enables operationally occurring floods to be mapped and the state’s operational institutions to deliver the necessary warnings and evacuate residents. In addition, the information about the flood that occurred can be used for planning in the future. As a follow-up activity, the development of the ESTEA´s service based on this methodology started in 2021.
Behavioural guidelines for crisis situations were prepared in 2018 together with the concept of population protection (updated in 2022). A website and an app "Be prepared" (Ole valmis) are also available to residents. In relation to climate change, extraordinary weather situations (storms, excessively hot weather) and floods have been presented as crisis situations, and guidelines for behaviour in these situations have been provided. In the autumn of 2018, project plans for the implementation of a nationwide crisis hotline and the development of a location-based rapid threat notification system were prepared under the leadership of the Emergency Centre.
The LIFE-IP BuildEst project deals with the development of technical solutions, pilot solutions for different building types and methods, activities related to climate risks and the circular economy, the development of digital tools and, more broadly, the raising of renovation-related awareness, in order to ultimately increase the ability of owners to renovate their buildings. During the project, among other things, climate risks are modelled and solutions for adapting to a changing climate are tested. These results are the basis for changes in design standards and regulations. The aim is to ensure better climate resistance of buildings in various extreme weather conditions throughout their life span, in order to avoid repeated renovation works. The project Includes the activities of 18 institutions leading innovation in the construction field all over Estonia. Among them are municipalities, NGOs, ministries, universities, professional associations and state institutions. The total budget is € 16.3 million, of which € 9.5 million is European support. The project will run until 2028.
Raising the problem awareness of the excess rainwater and sustainable rainwater solutions was solved through the LIFE UrbanStorm project (Urbanstorm, LIFE17 CCA/EE/000122), which aimed to develop sustainable urban rainwater systems that are resistant to climate change. The goal of the project was to increase the capacity of Estonian municipalities in adapting to climate change, especially in mitigating floods caused by torrential rains, thereby increasing the capacity of municipal water management specialists and engineers in local governments. In the course of the project, climate change adaptation strategies and action plans for Tallinn and Viimsi were prepared. The project’s results and support materials created based on lessons learnt in this project will support other local governments in Estonia in compiling their adaptation strategies and introducing SUDS in their municipalities. The duration of the project was Sept 2018 – Feb 2023. Reusing water is seen as a perspective of the future, and in the coming years there are plans to study reusing water and to develop a corresponding regulation in Estonia.
Overview of institutional arrangements and governance at the sub-national level (where “sub-national” refers to local and regional)
1) the Ministry of the Environment
2) the Ministry of Rural Affairs
3) the Ministry of the Interior
4) the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications
5) the Republic of Estonia Government Office
6) the Rescue Board
7) the Ministry of Finance
8) the Ministry of Education and Research
9) the Ministry of Social Affairs
10) The Association of Estonian Cities and Municipalities
11) the Estonian Research Council
12) the Network of Estonian Nonprofit Organisations, a representative from the Estonian Fund of Nature
13) the Estonian Village Movement Kodukant
In order to ensure the favourable condition of communities and the diversity of landscapes, a green network planning guide was prepared (initiated by the Ministry of Finance), which is primarily intended for planning a green network at the level of general planning but can also be used at the level of detailed plan.
Guidelines have been created for the preparation of local energy and climate plans for local governments. The guideline is available online: https://kik.ee/sites/defaul[…]BC%C3%BCsimise%20juhis.pdf. Examples of more recent energy and climate plans can be found here: https://media.voog.com/0000[…]B5pparuanne%2011102022.pdf; https://parnumaa.ee/[…]/Parnumaa-Kliimakava-2022.pdf; https://www.riigiteataja.ee/[…]/Energiakava2035.pdf#.
On June 8, 2022, risk mitigation plans related to the flood danger for Eastern-Estonia, Western-Estonia and Koiva watersheds were approved. These plans are necessary in order to prevent and mitigate damage caused by natural floods to human health, property and to the environment. Measures and guidelines of risk mitigation plans must be taken into account in development plans, planning decisions and crisis management plans of national and local governments. Therefore if a local government is in the flood risk area, then this has been taken into consideration and brought out in the local energy and climate plan. Risk mitigation plans related to the flood danger are available online: https://envir.ee/keskkonnakasutus/vesi/uleujutused.
In 2021, with the help of Green Tiger, Estonia’s first Climate Assembly for the youth of Ida-Virumaa was held. The format of the Climate Assembly, i.e. the people’s assembly on environmental issues, is intended for making complex and long-term climate-related environmental decisions. The Climate Assembly is made up of participants summoned on the basis of a random sample, who form a so-called mini-public. After listening to experts and related interest groups, the Climate Assembly makes informed and considered decisions on a given topic. In 2022, a larger climate meeting was held in the city of Tartu.
Behavioural guidelines for crisis situations were prepared in 2018 together with the concept of population protection (updated in 2022). A website and an app "Be prepared" (Ole valmis) are also available to residents. In relation to climate change, extraordinary weather situations (storms, excessively hot weather) and floods have been presented as crisis situations, and guidelines for behaviour in these situations have been provided.
In the autumn of 2018, project plans for the implementation of a nationwide crisis hotline and the development of a location-based rapid threat notification system were prepared under the leadership of the Emergency Centre.
In the period 2017-2020, a climate-related food waste and packaging campaign took place called "Respect food completely!", which was also aimed at companies, e.g. in terms of handling food waste.
In the course of the past few years several different climate-related information days, seminars and conferences were held, which were also aimed at private companies. Among them, the conference Biodiversity and Climate in a Changing World held at the end of 2021, where a discussion on the obligations, opportunities, and cooperation of various companies with the public sector in relation to environmental sustainability, climate change mitigation and adaptation took place. Also, representatives of the Ministry of Environment have participated in the so-called green days of companies.
The Ministry of Environment organizes a competition every year "Environmentally Friendly Company of the Year", which recognizes companies that have implemented measures that have a positive impact on the environment and that could also encourage other companies use environmentally friendly solutions. The "Environmentally Friendly Company of the Year" competition is organized with the aim of identifying environmentally friendly companies that have taken the well-being of the environment into account with their activities - contributed to reducing environmental pollution and increasing environmental protection. The purpose of the competition is to show that environmental problems can also be turned into economic opportunities. Recognizing the winners hopefully encourage other companies to use more environmentally friendly solutions and consumers to make more environmentally friendly choices.
A number of local governments said that to mitigate climate change risks actions taken so far have mostly been concerned with more energy-efficient construction of infrastructure, including street lighting. Also land reclamation and construction and renovation of rainwater systems.
A few examples of the goals of different energy and climate plans' goals and targets are brough out below.
Under "Climate Neutral Tallinn. Sustainable Energy and Climate Action Plan 2030" (City of Tallinn) the goal is to:
1) reduce Tallinn's CO2 emissions by 40% by 2030 compared to the baseline year 2007 and to try towards achieving climate neutrality. This is done by increasing energy efficiency and reducing the carbon intensity of energy consumption and moving towards a carbon-neutral vision for Tallinn;
2) plan activities to better adapt to changes due to climate change and its risks.
Under "Tartu Energy 2030" (City of Tartu) the goals are:
1) a climate-neutral city of Tartu by 2050;
2) reduce CO2 emissions by 40% by 2030;
3) reach a new level of renewable energy in consumption and production;
4) adapt to climate change.
Under “Green Hiiumaa” (County of Hiiumaa) the goals are to:
1) reduce CO2 emissions by 40% by 2030 compared to the year 2018;
2) become an energy-independent island through security of supply and developing new renewable energy connection and micro-grids;
3) reduce the effects of climate change on the population and economy. Increase community readiness to cope with climate risks.
Raising the problem awareness of the excess rainwater and sustainable rainwater solutions was solved through the LIFE UrbanStorm project (Urbanstorm, LIFE17 CCA/EE/000122), which aimed to develop sustainable urban rainwater systems that are resistant to climate change. The goal of the project was to increase the capacity of Estonian municipalities in adapting to climate change, especially in mitigating floods caused by torrential rains, thereby increasing the capacity of municipal water management specialists and engineers in local governments. In the course of the project, climate change adaptation strategies and action plans for Tallinn and Viimsi were prepared. The project’s results and support materials created based on lessons learnt in this project will support other local governments in Estonia in compiling their adaptation strategies and introducing SUDS in their municipalities. The duration of the project was Sept 2018 – Feb 2023. Reusing water is seen as a perspective of the future, and in the coming years there are plans to study reusing water and to develop a corresponding regulation in Estonia.