Prevention of climate-related damages to forests

Stakeholder participation is vital for the success of forest management strategies in adapting to climate change. Involving local communities, landowners, governments, NGOs, forest associations, forest advisory centres and businesses ensures that strategies are well-rounded, sustainable, and tailored to local needs. Below is an overview of stakeholder roles across various strategy groups:

• Fire Prevention (Green Firebreaks, Prescribed Burning, Managed Grazing): Collaboration with local communities, farmers, and fire departments is essential to strategically manage vegetation, reduce fire risks, and ensure safe, effective practices.
• Forest Management (Selective Logging, Thinning, Fire-Resistant Species, Pheromone traps and infested tree or log removals): Forest managers, environmental and forest associations, and local landowners must collaborate to ensure that selective harvesting, thinning and pest management are done in ways that preserve forest health while balancing economic interests.
• Species Management (Assisted Migration, Agroforestry): Involving local stakeholders in assisted migration and agroforestry projects fosters long-term stewardship. Governments, forest associations, NGOs, and scientists can provide technical and financial support, while community engagement ensures proper maintenance and relevance to local ecosystems.

Engaging stakeholders ensures that forest management strategies are tailored to local conditions, fostering long-term resilience and community ownership of forest health initiatives.

Several European initiatives highlight the importance of stakeholder participation in sustainable forest management to mitigate the impacts of climate change, wildfires, and other forest disturbances. For example, in Portugal (Viseu Dão Lafões case study), a collaborative effort between local communities, forest managers, and public authorities implemented livestock grazing and prescribed burning to reduce wildfire risk. Developed in partnership with local farmers and firefighters, these methods use grazing animals to naturally reduce underbrush and vegetation, creating fire-resistant zones​.

Similarly, in Belgium (Sonian forest case study), species selection and selective logging are used to manage vegetation and reduce the risk of wildfires. Public authorities, forest managers, roads and municipalities collaborate to balance ecological health with economic interests. These approaches show how active participation of various stakeholders -communities, public bodies, and landowners- can foster sustainable forest management in Europe.

Limitations

Thinning, reforestation, and agroforestry require significant financial resources for labour, equipment, and regular management. While selective logging, is better for the environment, it is often less profitable than clear-cutting, making it less attractive to timber companies. Managed grazing also involves additional expenses, such as moving and maintaining livestock. Finally, the establishment of firebreaks can be expensive, especially in areas with competing land uses, often limiting their widespread adoption. Some legislation gaps may also hinder the implementation of some measures. For example, prescribed burning needs to be properly regulated at national or regional level, while adjustments to hunting regulations may be needed to manage browsing in areas where reforestation activities started.

When implemented without proper knowledge and expertise, these strategies may disrupt local ecosystems and harm biodiversity. For example, prescribed burning and selective logging can temporarily disturb habitats and wildlife. Similarly, thinning operations may attract criticism from environmental associations concerned about ecosystems disturbances. Introducing non-native species for assisted migration can raise concerns about environmental impacts. The introduction of fire-resistant species or assisted migration could alter the ecosystem balance, potentially leading to invasive species or monocultures that reduce biodiversity. Overgrazing in managed grazing systems can lead to soil degradation, erosion, and habitat loss. Poorly managed reforestation efforts may fail to restore the original ecological diversity, focusing instead on a limited range of species. All of these can have cascading effects on the functioning of the ecosystem.

Many of these strategies require continuous management, expert staff and economic resources. Firebreaks, buffer zones, and thinning need regular maintenance to remain effective, while forests will regrow over time, necessitating periodic intervention. Additionally, the infrastructure required to carry out operations like thinning or selective logging — such as roads and access points — can fragment habitats and introduce additional risks. In remote or difficult-to-access areas, these logistical challenges become even more pronounced. Lastly, many of these strategies, especially reforestation and the establishment of new species, take considerable time before their benefits are fully realized. Thus, long-term investments are required.

Public perception and regulatory hurdles are significant barriers to the success of these strategies. Prescribed burns, in particular, face opposition due to concerns about safety, air quality, and the potential for fires to get out of control. Government regulations often restrict or do not allow the use of practices like prescribed burning or controlled grazing. This complicates efforts to implement these strategies at scale.

Successes

The European Union’s Forest Fire Prevention Programme supports local communities in managing forests to reduce fire risks while creating job opportunities. By providing funding and training, the programme has successfully engaged local populations in forestry activities that promote both economic development and fire prevention. Additionally, special funds for rural development are available through the programme. These funds can support management strategies aimed at preventing forest fires and other climate change related threats to forest health.

Implementing preservation measures can bring scientific, technical, political and private business partners together in a community of practice. For example in Italy (Occhito lake case study), efforts to preserve the forests around Occhito lake connected several municipalities and diversified economic activities, like eco-tourism.

To ensure the success of forest preservation strategies, such as fire prevention, species and forest management, several key conditions must be met: (i) prevention systems must be integrated with other forest management instruments; (ii) adequate resources must be available for strategy implementation; (iii) chosen strategies must be consistently monitored and adapted; (iv) strong collaboration with stakeholders is essential. Effective implementation of forest preservation strategies can save billions of euros. They help to avoid climate change related damages, from preventing large scale fires and the destruction of livelihoods and to preserve biodiversity and ecosystem services.

The strategies outlined in this adaptation option are increasingly recognized for their ability to improve forest resilience, enhance biodiversity, and mitigate wildfire risk, in light of ongoing climate change in Europe. These adaptation strategies also help maintain forests’ carbon sequestration capacity, ensuring clean air and a less polluted atmosphere. The following cost estimates are based on a review of available literature and case studies, range from the least to most expensive options, and include factors that can influence costs. These are estimations based on initial set-up per hectare and not necessarily including maintenance of the different options.

• Managed Grazing: €100 to €500 per hectare (depending on terrain and vegetation density). Member states can integrate this strategy into rural development programmes (European Commission: Directorate-General for Environment, 2021); or design interventions to support such practices and dedicate part of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) budget to specific pastoral systems. Sheep grazing for instance, can also lower costs of early thinning operations, as reported in examples by AFINET (AgroForestry Innovation NETworks). Pastoralism can also help reduce wildfires and associated costs, as showcased in Spain by the European Forum on Nature Conservation and Pastoralism.
• Agroforestry: €300 to €1,500 per hectare, depending on the integration of trees with agricultural practices. This is a rough estimation, yet the benefits often outweigh the costs (Kay et al., 2019), depending on the practice and the region.
• Green Firebreaks: €500 to €2,000 per hectare (higher in fire-prone areas like the Mediterranean). These can be quite effective. However, it is important to understand that the effectiveness largely depends on the properties of the fire and the implementation of the firebreak, see for example the analysis of 563 fires in Spain (Ortega et al., 2024).
• Prescribed Burning: €500 to €1500 per hectare (higher in southern Europe). Examples from Spain can be found here. In Portugual, an example of the costs and benefits are shown in the Climate-ADAPT case study inViseu Dão Lafões.
• Thinning: €500 to €2,500 per hectare (with higher costs in fire-prone or densely vegetated areas and depending on whether manual labour or mechanical thinning is employed).
• Selective Logging: €500 to €3,000 per hectare (depending on terrain, tree density, and whether mechanical or manual methods are used).
• Planting Fire-Resistant Species: €1,500 to €5,000 per hectare (depending on species selection, site preparation, and regular maintenance. In high-risk areas, where fire-resistant species are replacing more flammable species, costs can be on the higher end due to the need for soil preparation and irrigation (like in Mediterranean regions).
• Assisted Migration: €2,000 to €6,000 per hectare, varying by distance and complexity of relocation.

The long-term benefits of forest management extend well beyond immediate economic returns. Sustainable practices ensure that forests continue to provide vital services for future generations. This aspect is often overlooked in short-term cost analyses. However, even in the short-term perspective, these strategies provide important social benefits (employment opportunities and public health and wellbeing); environmental benefits (biodiversity preservation); as well as economic benefits (e,g. marketing wood processing residues).

Interventions like prescribed burns, managed grazing, or selective logging must align with the EU Habitats Directive and Birds Directive, to protect specific habitats and species. The approval by  relevant environmental authorities may be required, particularly in protected areas (e.g., Natura 2000 sites). The EU Forest Strategy proposes a Forest Monitoring Law. It will put a monitoring system in place that ensures delivering standardised or harmonised data and covers forests and other wooded land. 

Many forest management activities, particularly large-scale actions like thinning or prescribed burns, may require an Environmental Impact Assessment under EU and national regulations. These assessments evaluate the potential impact on local biodiversity, soil, and water, and consider mitigation measures to minimize harm.

Prescribed burning is tightly regulated due to public safety concerns. European countries require permits for controlled burns (see Prescribed fire and grazing as integrated approach to make forests climate resilient), adherence to safety protocols, and coordination with fire services. Weather conditions, timing, and safety measures must be documented and approved. Personnel conducting prescribed burns or operating firefighting equipment may need special training and certification. This ensures safe practices and compliance with national fire prevention standards.

Many countries require detailed forest management plans for activities like thinning or selective logging or other rural development measures. Those may need these management plans for subsidy application through the European fund for rural development (EAFRD). These plans ensure sustainable practices, protect public interests, and maintain forest health. Selective logging and thinning usually require permits to prevent overharvesting and unsustainable practices. National laws stipulate allowable harvesting levels, specify tree species and ages, and may also mandate regeneration requirements.

Some tree species are at risk of extinction (European red list of trees)and need protection under EU or national laws. Thus, they cannot be cut without special authorization. Thinning or selective logging in these areas must prioritize compliance with these protections.

For any strategy on private land, the legal owner’s consent is necessary. In some countries, owners may be eligible for subsidies or incentives if they allow certain conservation or fire prevention measures. Many European forests allow public access under “right to roam” laws. Thus, measures like prescribed burns or selective logging must consider public safety and access restrictions during the implementation of certain measures.

Managed grazing involves legal considerations around livestock management, grazing rights, and sometimes zoning laws. Countries may regulate grazing intensity and duration to prevent overgrazing or ensure forest regeneration. Managed grazing must comply with EU animal welfare standards, which ensure animals’ access to water, shelter, and sufficient forage, while minimizing overstocking risks.

The EU and individual countries regulate pest control and plant health through directives aimed at preventing the spread of invasive species and diseases. Strategies like removing infested trees and deploying pheromone traps need to adhere to biosecurity protocols (see EPPO guidelines). Some may require notification or approval from authorities. Pheromone traps and other pest management measures may be subject to specific national or EU regulations on biocontrol measures (use of natural enemies for the reduction of pest populations) especially in protected or sensitive areas.

Many EU countries offer financial incentives or subsidies to support sustainable forestry practices, fire prevention, and pest control under the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and LIFE Programme. However, to access funding, projects must meet eligibility criteria, such as demonstrating ecological benefits and adhering to best practices. Each European country has a national forestry department or ministry that publishes guidelines on forest management, fire prevention, and pest control. By addressing these legal aspects, forest preservation strategies in Europe can be implemented more effectively and sustainably, aligning with broader conservation and climate goals while respecting public safety, private property rights, and biodiversity protections.

The implementation time for the proposed options varies depending on the selected measure. It can range from:

• Short-term (up to 6 months): Pheromone traps, prescribed burning (if seasonal), initial phases of managed grazing, and small-scale removal of infested trees.
• Medium-term (6 months - 2 years): Thinning, selective logging, larger-scale removal of infested trees, managed grazing establishment, and initial setup of green firebreaks.
• Long-term (2+ years): Green firebreak maturity, planting of fire-resistant species, assisted migration, and ongoing managed grazing cycles for continuous forest maintenance.

Each strategy’s timeline may extend based on region-specific regulations, environmental conditions, and logistical challenges in the forested area.

The lifetime of the proposed options also varies depending on the selected measure. It can range from:

• Short-term (up to 2 years): Pheromone traps, prescribed burning (repeated cycles), and removal of infested trees.
• Medium-term (10-20 years): Thinning and some managed grazing setups, which need periodic intervention to maintain effectiveness.
• Long-term (20-50+ years): Fire-resistant species, selective logging, and green firebreaks with periodic maintenance.
• Very Long-term (50-100+ years): Assisted migration and the establishment of long-lived, climate-adapted tree species.

Regular monitoring and adaptive management are essential for maintaining the effectiveness of each strategy and responding to changing forest conditions.