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Major aspects of exposure, vulnerability, and resulting health risks for children and youth due to climate change

Health issues

Children and adolescents are particularly vulnerable to the health impacts of climate change because their bodies and immune systems are still developing (Anderko et al., 2020). Extreme heat, for example, can have more severe effects on young people because their bodies do not regulate temperature as efficiently as those of adults (Vanos et al., 2017). Therefore, they are more at risk of dehydration, heat exhaustion and heatstroke during heatwaves. In addition, poorly ventilated and overcrowded classrooms worsen the conditions in which young people must concentrate and perform (Salthammer et al., 2016). Already during pregnancy, stress can have negative effects infant's health and development and lead to preterm birth, low birth weight, and impaired cognitive, behavioural, and motor development (King et al., 2012).

Children have faster breathing rates than adults which means they inhale more pollutants relative to their body weight. Combined air pollution and high temperatures increases the risk of developing or exacerbating existing respiratory diseases, asthma, and atopic eczema (Pinkerton and Joad, 2000; Huss-Marp et al., 2006). Children also spend more time outdoors, increasing their exposure to environmental hazards such as UV radiation and polluted air, water, soil, or disease vectors. Furthermore, their natural curiosity and behaviours, including playing on the ground and putting objects in their mouths, increases their contact with contaminants. During natural disasters, like flooding or wildfires, children are more likely to suffer from injuries, nutritional deficiencies, food insecurity and food- and waterborne diseases.

Climate change can also affect the mental health of children as they may experience fear and distress from witnessing extreme events, worrying about the future, school closures, or from displacement and change of livelihood. The fear of future catastrophes and the visible destruction of natural habitats contribute to what is often termed "eco-anxiety," affecting children's mental health and academic performance (Léger-Goodes et al., 2022). Additionally, children's reliance on adults for care and decision-making means they are less able to protect themselves during climate-related events (Sanson et al., 2022). In the aftermath of disasters, young people, just like adults, are more prone to adopt behaviours that may negatively impact their health such as academic disinterest and dysfunction, unhealthy eating habits and, for adolescents, substance abuse and smoking (Manning and Clayton, 2018; Hoey et al., 2020).

Observed effects

In recent decades, children and adolescents across Europe have increasingly suffered from health impacts directly linked to climate change. The escalating intensity and frequency of heatwaves have contributed to dehydration, heatstroke, and exacerbated respiratory disorders among the younger generation; one in two children in Europe is exposed to at least 4-5 heatwaves per year (UNICEF, 2023). Almost half of all schools in European cities lie in areas prone to urban heat island effects, with temperatures at least 2°C warmer than the regional average (European Climate and Health Observatory, 2022). Across Europe, emergency hospital admissions and the incidence of cardiovascular, respiratory and renal diseases as well as fever and heatstroke increased in children during heat waves (Xu et al., 2014). As a reference, a total of 52 children died from heatstroke in the UK in 2018 (Forsyth & Solan, 2022).

Increased flooding also puts children at a higher risk of casualties, waterborne diseases, and mental health impacts (EEA, 2024). In Europe, approximately one in ten schools is located in potential flood-prone areas (European Climate and Health Observatory, 2022). Moreover, children playing in dry floodplains has led to infections from parasites like Cryptosporidium (Gertler et al., 2015). Furthermore, poor air quality, partly induced by increased wildfires and heatwaves, has exacerbated respiratory conditions, such as asthma, among children in Europe. In Europe between 2010 and 2019, an estimated 5,839 infants (under one year) died from causes linked to air pollution (UNICEF, 2024), and approximately one third of European childhood asthma cases can be attributed to air pollution (Nieuwenhuijsen et al., 2023). The rise in pollen due to warmer temperatures has also led to an increase in allergy-related health issues, further impacting children's health and wellbeing (Beck et al., 2013). Climate change has also influenced the distribution of infectious diseases within Europe. In many European countries, the expanded and shifted habitats and prolonged activity season for ticks, mosquitoes, and other vectors, largely driven by warmer climates, has led to a noticeable uptick in cases of Lyme disease (Shafquat et al., 2023), tick-borne encephalitis, as well as mosquito-borne diseases like dengue and West Nile Fever, even in areas previously considered low-risk (Semenza and Suk, 2018). As children have a less developed immune system, for some diseases there is also a higher risk of a more severe or even fatal disease course.

Changes in precipitation patterns and more frequent extreme weather events have led to crop failures and reduced agricultural productivity in parts of Europe. While intra-European trade prevents locally acute food shortages, reduced food availability leads to higher food prices and reduced access to healthy and nutritious food, particularly for lower-income families (EEA, 2024). This has implications for children's nutritional intake and therefore their cognitive development, ability to learn and perform at school, and overall health.

European youth suffer a psychological impact due to climate change, with reports of heightened anxiety, depression, and stress-related disorders linked to climate-related disasters. In a survey among youth in three European countries, more than 50% reported feeling sad, anxious, angry, powerless and guilty and over 30% said that these feelings about climate change negatively affected their daily life and ability to function (Hickman et al., 2021).

Projected effects

As the climate continues to change, it is projected that the health risks for children and adolescents will continue to rise. Injuries, fatalities, and mental health challenges among young populations related to extreme weather events, such as heatwaves, storms, and floods, are expected to increase with the projected intensification and increased frequency of those events (e.g., Amengual et al., 2014). Children born in Europe in 2020 will encounter around 4 times more extreme events, particularly heat waves, compared to those born in 1960 (Thiery et al., 2021). By 2050, all European children will be exposed to 4-5 heatwaves per year and the associated health risks (UNICEF, 2023). In the future, respiratory diseases will be exacerbated by longer and more intense pollen seasons (Rasmussen et al., 2017). With continuous climatic change, more children are expected to be exposed to vector-borne diseases previously uncommon in their regions because mosquitoes, ticks and sandflies will thrive in broader and more northern areas (Semenza and Suk, 2018). Further, altered weather patterns augment the risk of water- and foodborne diseases, as well as malnutrition, due to impacts on water quality and food production (e.g., Semenza et al., 2017; EEA, 2024). Young people are at a higher risk of developing anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorders which is expected to be exasperated due to climate change impacts such as  displacement, destruction of communities, the loss of loved ones, disruptions to education and social instability (Clayton et al., 2023).

Policy responses

Reducing climate-related health risks for children requires urgent and child-focused action to adapt healthcare and support systems to protect the most vulnerable members of society. In 2022, the Council of the European Union adopted a Recommendation on learning for the green transition and sustainable development. Several EU-funded projects have supported the implementation of nature-based solutions that aim at transforming spaces frequented by children, such as schools or playgrounds, into cool islands to counter heat impacts (e.g., the OASIS programme or the myBUILDINGisGREEN project). Other projects (such as SINPHONIE) have led to recommendations for children's well-being and the implementation of technological solutions to reduce the impact of air pollution in schools. Increasing awareness plays a key role in disaster risk reduction. Projects like WATERCARE or Hull Children’s Flood aim to raise awareness about flooding and water quality risks, for children and youth mostly through educational modules, hands-on laboratories, or online platforms. Examples of specific tools to raise awareness among children include a toolkit on vector-borne diseases by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) and an educational gameabout ticks and Lyme disease by Dutch health authorities. Vaccination is a very effective defence against tick-borne encephalitis (TBE). However, TBE vaccine recommendations, including for children, vary widely across European countries. Austria and Switzerland are the only countries with national universal vaccination programs, while other European nations base their recommendations on factors like risk areas or occupational exposure (Steffen, 2019; Erber and Schmitt, 2018).

Further information

References

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This translation is generated by eTranslation, a machine translation tool provided by the European Commission.